DOC_NO 1 AUTHOR Bates, Marcia J. TITLE Subject Access in Online Catalogs: A Design Model CITE v. 37, no. 6 (November), 357-375 ABSTRACT A model based on strikingly different philosophical assumptions from those currently popular is proposed for the design of online subject catalog access. Three design principles are presented and discussed: uncertainty (subject indexing is indeterminate and probabilistic beyond a certain point), variety (by Ashby's law of requisite variety, variety of searcher query must equal variety of document indexing), and complexity (the search process, particularly during the entry and orientation phases, is subtler and more complex, on several grounds, than current models assume). Design features presented are an access phase, including entry and orientation, a hunting phase, and a selection phase. An end-user thesaurus and a front-end system mind are presented as examples of online catalog system components to improve searcher success during entry and orientation. The proposed model is "wrapped around" existing Library of Congress subject-heading indexing in such a way as to enhance access greatly without requiring reindexing. It is argued that both for cost reasons and in principle this is a superior approach to other design philosophies. POSTCO design indexing information retrieval online information systems models search terms searching subject access subject headings thesauri user studies PRECO information retrieval--indexing information retrieval--models information retrieval--searching information retrieval--user studies online information systems--design search terms--subject headings subject access--thesauri PUBLICATION Journal of the American Society for Information Science YEAR 1986 DOC_NO 2 AUTHOR Dervin, Brenda & Dewdney, Patricia TITLE Neutral Questioning: A new approach to the reference interview CITE Summer, 506-513 ABSTRACT Neutral questioning is a strategy for conducting the reference interview in a way that allows the librarian to understand the query from the user’s viewpoint. Neutral questions are open in form, avoid premature diagnosis of the problem, and structure the interview along dimensions important to the users. Derived from extensive studies into information-seeking behavior, this strategy has now been taught to over a thousand practitioners through workshops developed in 1981. Empirically based research to test the effects of neutral questioning is in progress. Informal evaluation indicates that neutral questioning may become a useful component of in-service training for librarians. POSTCO human factors information retrieval questioning strategies reference interviews PRECO information retrieval--human factors reference interviews reference interviews--questioning strategies PUBLICATION RQ YEAR 1986 DOC_NO 3 AUTHOR Rothenberg, Jeff TITLE Ensuring the Longevity of Digital Documents CITE v. 272, no. 1 (January), 42-47 ABSTRACT The digital medium is replacing paper in a dramatic record-keeping revolution. But such documents may be lost unless we act now. Information technology is revolutionizing our concept of record keeping in an upheaval as great as the introduction of printing, if not of writing itself. The current generation of digital records has unique historical significance. Yet these documents are far more fragile than paper, placing the chronicle of our entire period in jeopardy. The significance of many digital documents--those we consider too unimportant to archive--may become apparent only long after they become unreadable. Many of the traditional methods developed for archiving printed matter are not applicable to electronic files. The content and historical value of thousands of records, databases, and personal documents may be irretrievably lost to future generations if we do not take steps to preserve them now. POSTCO digital documents preservation standards PRECO digital documents--preservation digital documents--standards PUBLICATION Scientific American YEAR 1995 DOC_NO 4 AUTHOR Simon, Herbert A. TITLE Information-Processing Models of Cognition CITE September, no. 5, 364-377 ABSTRACT This article reviews recent progress in modeling human cognitive processes. Particular attention is paid to the use of computer programming languages as a formalism for modeling, and to computer simulation of the behavior of the systems modeled. Theories of human cognitive processes can be attempted at several levels: at the level of neural processes, at the level of elementary information processes (e.g., retrieval from memory, scanning down lists in memory, comparing simple symbols, etc.), or at the level of higher mental processes (e.g., problem solving, concept attainment). This article will not deal at all with neural models; it focuses mainly upon higher mental processes, but not without some attention to modeling the elementary processes and especially to the relationships between elementary and complex processes. POSTCO human cognition information processing psychology theories PRECO information processing--human cognition psychology--theories PUBLICATION Journal of the American Society for Information Science YEAR 1981 DOC_NO 5 AUTHOR Harter, Stephen & Cheng, Yung-Rang TITLE Colinked Descriptors: Improving Vocabulary Selection for End-User Searching CITE v. 47, no. 4 (April), 311-325 ABSTRACT This article introduces a new concept and technique for information retrieval called colinked descriptors. Borrowed from an analogous idea in mbibliometrics--cocited references--colinked descriptors provide a theory and method for identifying search terms that, by hypothesis, will be superior to those entered initially by a searcher. The theory suggests a means of moving automatically from two or more initial search terms, to other terms that should be superior in retrieval performance to the two original terms. A research project designed to test this colinked descriptor hypothesis is reported. The results suggest that the approach is effective, although methodological problems in testing the idea are reported. Algorithms to generate colinked descriptors can be incorporated easily into system interfaces, front-end or pre-search systems, or help software, in any database that employs a thesaurus. The potential use of colinked descriptors is a strong argument for building richer and more complex thesauri that reflect as many legitimate links amoung descriptors as possible. POSTCO descriptors document relevance information retrieval search terms subject access thesauri user studies PRECO information retrieval--document relevance information retrival--user studies search terms--descriptors subject access--thesauri PUBLICATION Journal of the American Society for Information Science YEAR 1996 DOC_NO 6 AUTHOR Harter, Stephen P. TITLE Psychological relevance and information science CITE v. 43, no. 9 (October) 602-615 ABSTRACT This article summarizes the theory of psychological relevance proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson (1986), to explicate the relevance of speech utterances to hearers in everyday conversation. The theory is then interpreted as the concept of relevance in information retrieval, and an extended example is presented. Implications of psychological relevance for research in information retrieval; evaluation of information retrieval systems; and the concepts of information, information need, and the information-seeking process are explored. Connections of the theory to ideas in bibliometrics are also suggested. POSTCO document relevance information seeking behavior information retrieval psychology searching theories PRECO information retrieval--document relevance information retrieval--searching information retrieval--theories information seeking behavior psychology--theories PUBLICATION Journal of the American Society for Information Science YEAR 1992 DOC_NO 7 AUTHOR Gauch, Susan TITLE Intelligent Information Retrieval: An Introduction CITE v. 43, no. 2 (March), 175-182 ABSTRACT Researchers are exploring the application of artificial intelligence techniques to information retrieval with the goal of providing intelligent access to online information. This article surveys several such systems to show what is possible in the lab today, and what may be possible in the library or office of tomorrow. Systemsincorporating user modeling, natural language understanding, and expert systems technology are presented. POSTCO artificial intelligence human-computer interaction information retrieval interfaces online information systems searching PRECO human-computer interaction information retrieval--searching online information systems--artificial intelligence online information systems--interfaces PUBLICATION Journal of the American Society for Information Science YEAR 1992 DOC_NO 8 AUTHOR Huston, Mary M. TITLE Windows into the Search Process: An Inquiry into Dimensions of Online Information Retrieval CITE v. 19, no. 3/4 (June/August), 227-243 ABSTRACT From diverse users’ points of view, contextual frameworks are elaborated for the nature of the information technology, the information universe, and the information search. Within these conceptual parameters, established theories on search strategy are reviewed and cognitive models of information- seeking are highlighted. Future directions for research on users’ search processes are discussed in terms of the role for online retrieval in the future information environment. POSTCO access points information retrieval information seeking behavior needs assessment online information systems searching user studies PRECO information seeking behavior information retrieval--searching online information systems--access points online information systems--needs assessment online information systems--user studies PUBLICATION Online Review YEAR 1991 DOC_NO 9 AUTHOR Najarian, Suzanne E. TITLE Organizational Factors in Human Memory: Implications for Library Organization and Access Systems CITE v. 51, no. 3, 269-291 ABSTRACT Psychological studies on memory and learning are examined for what they might reveal about human categorizing processes and the organizing principles and limitations of human memory. Particular attention is given to evidence for a model which represents the organization of knowledge in memory in terms of a hierarchical type of structure. The experimental findings suggest several considerations for the design of library systems of organization and access that would take into account characteristics of the conceptual organization of knowledge. Such systems are likely to be particularly effective in aiding the user in his search for information since they would (1) employ organizational schemes that are familiar to the individual, (2) permit a strategy for the exploration of a subject area similar to the type of search procedure which seems to facilitate the retrieval of items from memory, and (3) take into consideration the apparent limits on the amount of information that the individual can successfully attend to at one time. POSTCO design human cognition information processing memory online information systems psychology theories PRECO information processing--human cognition online information systems--design psychology--memory psychology--theories PUBLICATION The Library Quarterly YEAR 1981 DOC_NO 10 AUTHOR Soergel, Dagobert TITLE Assessment of User's Problems and Needs CITE 93-107 (Chapter 7) ABSTRACT The importance of studying user needs as a basis for information system evaluation and design is discussed, and several approaches to the study of user needs are discussed, including the use of user feedback, examination of past use, and problem analysis based on records. POSTCO design evaluation needs assessment online information systems user studies PRECO online information systems--design online information systems--evaluation online information systems--needs assessment online information systems--user studies PUBLICATION Organizing Information: Priniciples of Database and Retrieval Systems YEAR 1985 DOC_NO 11 AUTHOR Bates, Marcia J. TITLE Indexing and Access for Digital Libraries and the Internet: Human, Database, and Domain Factors CITE v. 49, no. 13, 1185-1205 ABSTRACT Discussion in the research community and among the general public regarding content indexing (especially subject indexing) and access to digital resources, especially on the Internet, has underutilized research on a variety of factors that are important in the design of such access mechanisms. Some of these factors and issues are reviewed and implications drawn for information system design in the era of electronic access. Specifically the following are discussed: Human factors: Subject searching vs. indexing, multiple terms of access, folk classification, basic-level terms, and folk access; Database factors: Bradford’s Law, vocabulary scalability, the Resnikoff-Dolby 3O:l Rule; Domain factors: Role of domain in indexing. POSTCO design human factors information retrieval indexing online information systems searching PRECO information retrieval--indexing information retrieval--searching online information systems--design online information systems--human factors PUBLICATION Journal of the American Society for Information Science YEAR 1998 DOC_NO 12 AUTHOR Maron, M. E. TITLE Probabilistic Design Principles for Conventional and Full-Text Retrieval Systems CITE v. 24, no. 3, 249-255 ABSTRACT In order for conventionally designed commercial document retrieval systems to perform perfectly, the following two (logical) conditions must be satisfied for every search: (1) There exists a document property (or combination of properties) that belongs to those (and only those) documents that are relevant. (2) That property (or combination of properties) can be correctly guessed by the searcher. In general, the first assumption is false, and the second is impossible to satisfy; hence no conventional IR system can perform at a maximum level of effectiveness. (We are painfully aware of the current poor performance values for Recall and Precision. Furthermore, Recall deteriorates rapidly as document corpora continue to grow in size.) However, different design principles can lead to improved performance. This article presents a view of the document retrieval problem that shows that since the relationship between document properties (whether they be humanly assigned index terms or words that occur in the running text) and relevance is at best probabilistic, one should approach the design problem using probabilistic principles. It turns out that a front end designed to permit searchers to attach probabilistically interpreted weights to their query terms could be adapted for conventional IR systems. Such an enhancement could lead to improved performance. POSTCO design document relevance document ranking evaluation information retrieval searching statistics PRECO information retrieval--document ranking information retrieval--document relevance information retrieval--searching online information systems--design online information systems--evaluation online information systems--statistics PUBLICATION Information Processing and Management YEAR 1988 DOC_NO 13 AUTHOR Smith, Elizabeth S. TITLE On the Shoulders of Giants: From Boole to Shannon to Taube: The Origins and Development of Computerized Information from the Mid-19th Century to the Present CITE v. 12, no.2 (June), 217-226 ABSTRACT This article describes the evolvement of computerized information storage and retrieval, from its beginnings in the theoretical works on logic by George Boole in the mid-nineteenth century, to the application of Boole's logic to switching circuits by Claude Shannon in the late 1930s, and the development of coordinate indexing by Mortimer Taube in the late 194Os and early 1950s. Thus, electronic storage and retrieval of information, as we know it today, was the result of two major achievements: the advancement of computer technology initiated to a large extent by the work of Shannon, and the development of coordinate indexing and retrieval by the work of Taube Both these achievements are based on and are the application of the theoretical works of George Boole. POSTCO Boole, George Boolean algebra history information retrieval online information systems Shannon, Claude Taube, Mortimer theories PRECO Boole, George information retrieval--Boolean algebra information retrieval--theories online information systems--history Shannon, Claude Taube, Mortimer PUBLICATION Information Technology and Libraries YEAR 1993 DOC_NO 14 AUTHOR Spink, Amanda TITLE Term Relevance Feedback and Mediated Database Searching: Implications for Information Retrieval Practice and System Design CITE v. 31, no. 2, 161-171 ABSTRACT Research into both the algorithmic and human approaches to information retrieval is required to improve information retrieval system design and database search ing effectiveness. This study uses the human approach to examine the sources and effec tiveness of search terms selected during mediated interactive information retrieval. The study focuses on determining the retrieval effectiveness of search terms identified by users and intermediaries from retrieved items during term relevance feedback. Results show that terms selected from particular database fields of retrieved items during term relevance feedback (TRF) were more effective than search terms from the intermediary, data base thesauri or users' domain knowledge during the interaction, but not as effective as terms from the users' written question statements. Implications for the design and testing of automatic relevance feedback techniques that place greater emphasis on these sources and the practice of database searching are also discussed. POSTCO human-computer interaction information retrieval online information systems searching user studies PRECO human-computer interaction information retrieval--searching online information systems--user studies PUBLICATION Information Processing and Management YEAR 1995 DOC_NO 15 AUTHOR Wang, Peiling & Soergel, Dagobert TITLE Beyond Topical Relevance: Document Selection Behavior of Real Users of IR Systems CITE v. 30, October 23-28, 87-92 ABSTRACT This paper reports on part of a study of real users’ behavior in selecting documents from a list of citations resulting from a search of an information retrieval (IR) system. Document selection involves value judgments and decision making. Understanding how users evaluate documents and make decisions provides a basis for designing intelligent IR systems that can do a better job of predicting usefulness. Twenty-five faculty and graduate students in an academic department participated in the study with requests presented to the department’s library. After a reference interview to establish the user’s profile (information needs, tasks at hand, expectations, and experience), a search was done on Dialog. From the resulting printouts of full citations participants selected the documents for which they wished to see the full text. Participants were asked to read aloud (information attended) and think aloud (whatever comes to their minds, decisions and their reasons). Analysis of the verbal protocol data identified the criteria, the sources of information, and the patterns of document selection behavior. Among the factors identified are topical relevance, field relevance (field is broader than topic), novelty, expected usefulness (from previous experience of the author or journal), orientation, recency, availability, special requisites and time constrains. The design of an intelligent IR system requires an enormous knowledge base including not only the domain knowledge, but also the individual user’s preferences and document selection behavior. Such a system could better anticipate the user’s decisions and present it’s output accordingly. POSTCO document selection information retrieval information seeking behavior online information systems user studies PRECO information retrieval--document selection information seeking behavior online information systems--user studies PUBLICATION ASIS '93: Proceedings of the 56th ASIS Annual Meeting: Integrating Technologies; Converging Professions YEAR 1993